Cover not available

Article published In: Australian Review of Applied Linguistics: Online-First Articles

Get fulltext from our e-platform
JBE logo with link
PDF logo with download linkDownload PDF
EPUB logo with download linkDownload EPUB
authorization required

Unraveling willingness to communicate in Chinese as a second language

The role of L2 grit, growth mindset, and foreign language enjoyment

ORCiD logo with link | Huazhong Agricultural University
Published online: 2 June 2025
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/aral.24129.li
Abstract
Drawing on the tenets of positive psychology, this study delves into the intricate interplay between three pivotal character strengths: second language grit (L2 grit), foreign language enjoyment, and growth language mindset, and their subsequent influence on willingness to communicate in Chinese as a second language (CSL) learners. By administering a survey to 202 CSL learners and employing structural equation modeling, the findings indicate that (1) perseverance of effort, a sub-component of L2 grit, significantly and positively predicts both growth mindset and foreign language enjoyment; (2) perseverance of effort and foreign language enjoyment are direct predictors of willingness to communicate; (3) perseverance of effort positively influences willingness to communicate through the sequential mediation of growth mindset and foreign language enjoyment; and (4) consistency of interest, another sub-component of L2 grit, does not exhibit predictive power over growth mindset, foreign language enjoyment, or willingness to communicate, further underscoring the unique effects of perseverance of effort in this context. Essentially, this study emphasizes the pivotal role of perseverance of effort, alongside foreign language enjoyment and growth mindset, in driving engaged and supportive communication in CSL learners. The findings provide educators and researchers with valuable insights for refining language learning experiences and outcomes through the application of positive psychology principles.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Literature review
    • 2.1L2 willingness to communicate
    • 2.2Foreign language enjoyment
    • 2.3L2 grit
    • 2.4Growth language mindset
    • 2.5Research questions
  • 3.Method
    • 3.1Participants and setting
    • 3.2Instruments
      • 3.2.1L2 willingness to communicate scale
      • 3.2.2Short-form foreign language enjoyment scale (S-FLES)
      • 3.2.3L2 grit scale
      • 3.2.4Growth language mindset scale
    • 3.3Data collection
    • 3.4Data analysis
  • 4.Results
    • 4.1Initial analyses
    • 4.2Confirmative factor analysis
    • 4.3Relationship between the variables
  • 5.Discussion
  • 6.Conclusion, implications, and limitations
  • Acknowledgements
  • Generative AI Statement
  • References
References (82)
References
Alrabai, F. (2022). Modeling the relationship between classroom emotions, motivation, and learner willingness to communicate in EFL: Applying a holistic approach of positive psychology in SLA research. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 45(7), 2465–2483. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bai, B., & Wang, J. (2020). The role of growth mindset, self-efficacy and intrinsic value in self-regulated learning and English language learning achievements. Language Teaching Research, 27(1), 207–228. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Baker, S. C., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2000). The role of gender and immersion in communication and second language orientations. Language Learning, 50(2), 311–341. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bensalem, E., Thompson, A. S., & Alenazi, F. (2023). The role of grit and enjoyment in EFL learners’ willingness to communicate in Saudi Arabia and Morocco: A cross-cultural study. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Botes, E., Dewaele, J.–M., & Greiff, S. (2021). The development and validation of the short-form foreign language enjoyment scale. The Modern Language Journal, 105(4), 858–876. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2022). By the old gods and the new: The effect of the congruence and incongruence of foreign language classroom anxiety and enjoyment on self-perceived proficiency. The Modern Language Journal, 106(4), 784–797. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cao, Y., & Philp, J. (2006). Interactional context and willingness to communicate: A comparison of behavior in whole class, group and dyadic interaction. System, 34(4), 480–493. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cheng, H. F. (2021). The effect of language-specific grit and future self-guides on willingness to communicate in the second language. English Teaching & Learning, 45(30), 283–301. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Clément, R., Baker, S. C., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2003). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The effects of context, norms, and vitality. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 22(2), 190–209. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155–159. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Derakhshan, A., Fathi, J., Pawlak, M., & Kruk, M. (2022). Classroom social climate, growth language mindset, and student engagement: The mediating role of boredom in learning English as a foreign language. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 45(8), 3415–3433. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dewaele, J.–M. (2019). The effect of classroom emotions, attitudes toward English, and teacher behavior on willingness to communicate among English foreign language learners. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 38(4), 523–535. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dewaele, J.–M., & Dewaele, L. (2017). The dynamic interactions in foreign language classroom anxiety and foreign language enjoyment of pupils aged 12 to 18. A pseudo-longitudinal investigation. Journal of the European Second Language Association, 1(1), 12–22. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2018). Learner-internal and learner-external predictors of willingness to communicate in the FL classroom. Journal of the European Second Language Association, 2(1), 24–37. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dewaele, J.–M., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2014). The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 4(2), 237–274. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2016). Foreign language enjoyment and foreign language classroom anxiety: The right and left feet of the language learner. In P. MacIntyre, T. Gregersen, & S. Mercer (Eds.), Positive psychology in SLA (pp. 215–236). Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087–1101. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Duckworth, A. L., & Quinn, P. D. (2009). Development and validation of the short grit scale (Grit-S). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(2), 166–174. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2014). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Psychology Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fathi, J., Pawlak, M., Saeedian, S., & Ghaderi, A. (2024). Exploring factors affecting foreign language achievement: The role of growth mindset, self-efficacy, and L2 grit. Language Teaching Research. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Feng, L., & Papi, M. (2020). Persistence in language learning: The role of grit and future self-guides. Learning and Individual Differences, 811, 101904. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2003). The value of positive emotions: The emerging science of positive psychology is coming to understand why it’s good to feel good. American Scientist, 91(4), 330–335. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2009). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hashimoto, Y. (2002). Motivation and willingness to communicate as predictors of reported L2 use: The Japanese ESL context. Second Language Studies, 20(2), 29–70.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hejazi, S. Y., Sadoughi, M., & Peng, J. (2023). The structural relationship between teacher support and willingness to communicate: The mediation of L2 anxiety and the moderation of growth language mindset. Journal of Psycholinguistics Research, 52(60), 2955–2978. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jiang, Y., & Dewaele, J.–M. (2019). How unique is the foreign language classroom enjoyment and anxiety of Chinese EFL learners? System, 821, 13–25. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jin, Y. & Zhang, L. J. (2021). The dimension of foreign language classroom enjoyment and their effect on foreign language achievement. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 24(7), 948–962. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kang, S.–J. (2005). Dynamic emergence of situational willingness to communicate in a second language. System, 33(2), 277–292. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kang, D.–M. (2014). The effects of study-abroad experiences on EFL learners’ willingness to communicate, speaking abilities, and participation in classroom interaction. System, 42(1), 319–332. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Khajavy, G. H., Ghonsooly, B., Fatemi, A. H., & Choi, C. W. (2014). Willingness to communicate in English: A microsystem model in the Iranian EFL classroom context. TESOL Quarterly, 50(1), 154–180. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Khajavy, G. H., MacIntyre, P. D., & Barabadi, E. (2018). Role of the emotions and classroom environment in willingness to communicate: Applying doubly latent multilevel analysis in second language acquisition research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40(3), 605–624. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Khajavy, G. H., MacIntyre, P. D., & Hariri, J. (2020). A closer look at grit and language mindset as predictors of foreign language achievement. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 43(2), 379–402. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kim, H.–Y. (2013). Statistical notes for clinical researchers: Assessing normal distribution (2) using skewness and kurtosis. Restorative Dentistry & Endodontics, 38(1), 52–54. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lake, J. (2013). Positive L2 self: Linking positive psychology with L2 motivation. In T. M. Apple, D. Da Silva, & T. Fellner (Eds.), Language learning motivation in Japan (pp. 225–244). Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lan, G., Nikitina, L., & Woo, W.–S. (2021). Ideal L2 self and willingness to communicate: A moderated mediation model of shyness and grit. System, 991, 102503. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lan, G., Zhao, X., & Gong, M. (2023). Motivational intensity and willingness to communicate in L2 learning: A moderated mediation model of enjoyment, boredom, and shyness. System, 1171, 103116. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, J. S. (2022). The role of grit and classroom enjoyment in EFL learners’ willingness to communicate. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 43(5), 452–468. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, J. S., & Drajati, N. A. (2019). Willingness to communicate in digital and non-digital EFL contexts: Scale development and psychometric testing. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 33(7), 688–707. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, J. S., & Lee, K. (2019). Affective factors, virtual intercultural experiences, and L2 Willingness to Communicate in in-class, out-of-class, and digital settings. Language Teaching Research, 24(6), 813–833. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, J. S., Lee, K., & Hsieh, J. C. (2022). Understanding willingness to communicate in L2. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, J. S., & Taylor, T. (2022). Positive psychology constructs and extramural English as predictors of primary school students’ willingness to communicate. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 45(7), 1–19. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Li, B., Ma, L., & Zhang, L. J. (2024). A new look at language mindset, achievement goals, and L2 emotions: The case of Chinese university students. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1–17. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Li, C., & Dewaele, J.–M. (2021). How classroom environment and general grit predict foreign language classroom anxiety of Chinese EFL students. Journal for the Psychology of Language Learning, 3(2), 86–98. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Li, C., Dewaele, J.–M., Pawlak, M., & Kruk, M. (2022). Classroom environment and willingness to communicate in English: The mediating role of emotions experienced by university students in China. Language Teaching Research. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Li, C., & Yang, Y. (2023). Domain-general grit and domain-specific grit: Conceptual structures, measurement, and associations with the achievement of German as a foreign language. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 62(4), 1513–1537. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Li, Y. (2025, in press). Examining the interplay of grit, classroom emotions, and willingness to communicate among Chinese as a second language learners: A structural equation modeling approach. Researching and Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Liu, E., & Wang, J. (2021). Examine the relationship between grit and foreign language performance: Enjoyment and anxiety as mediators. Frontiers in Psychology, 121. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lou, N. M., & Noels, K. A. (2019). Promoting growth in foreign and second language education: A research agenda for mindsets in language learning and teaching. System, 861, 102126. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
MacIntyre, P. D., Baker, S., Clément, R., & Donovan, L. A. (2002). Sex and age effects on willingness to communicate, anxiety, perceived competence, and L2 motivation among junior high school French immersion students. Language Learning, 52(3), 537–564. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
MacIntyre, P. D., Dörnyei, Z., Clément, R., & Noels, K. A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. The Modern Language Journal, 82(4), 545–562. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
MacIntyre, P. D., & Legatto, J. J. (2011). A dynamic system approach to willingness to communicate: Developing an idiodynamic method to capture rapidly changed affect. Applied Linguistics, 32(2), 149–171. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
McCroskey, J., & Baer, J. (1985, November). Willingness to communicate: The construct and its measurement. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association, Denver, CO.
Papi, M., Rios, A., Pelt, H., & Ozdemir, E. (2019). Feedback-seeking behavior in language learning: Basic components and motivational antecedents. The Modern Language Journal, 103(1), 205–226. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Park, N., Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Strengths of character and well-being. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(5), 603–619. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pavelescu, L. M. (2019). Motivation and emotion in the EFL learning experience of Romanian adolescent students: Two contrasting cases. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 9(1), 55–82. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pawlak, M., Mystkowska-Wiertelak, A., & Bielak, J. (2016). Investigating the nature of classroom willingness to communicate (WTC): A micro-perspective. Language Teaching Research, 20(5), 654–671. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Peng, J., & Woodrow, L. (2010). Willingness to communicate in English: A model in the Chinese EFL classroom context. Language Learning, 60(4), 834–876. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sadoughi, M., & Hejazi, S. Y. (2023). How can L2 motivational self system enhance willingness to communicate? The contribution of foreign language enjoyment and anxiety. Current Psychology, 43(3), 1–13. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sadoughi, M., & Hejazi, S. Y. (2024). Growth language mindset and willingness to communicate: Contributions of linguistic risk taking and learning experience. Acta Psychologica, 2481. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sadoughi, M., Hejazi, S. Y., & Lou, N. M. (2023). How do growth mindsets contribute to academic engagement in L2 classes? The mediating and moderating roles of the L2 motivational self system. Social Psychology of Education, 26(1), 241–261. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Saito, K., Dewaele, J.–M., Abe, M., & In’nami, Y. (2018). Motivation, emotion, learning experience, and second language comprehensibility development in classroom settings: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study. Language Learning, 68(3), 709–743. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sato, R. (2023). Examining fluctuations in the WTC of Japanese EFL speakers: Language proficiency, affective and conditional factors. Language Teaching Report, 27(4), 974–994. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Seligman, M. E. P. (2012). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. Free Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Subtirelu, N. (2014). A language ideological perspective on willingness to communicate. System, 421, 120–132. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sudina, E., & Plonsky, L. (2021). Academic perseverance in foreign language learning: An investigation of language-specific grit and its conceptual correlates. The Modern Language Journal, 105(4), 829–857. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sun, P. P., Zhang, J., & Zhao, X. (2024). Modeling speaking performance in young learners of Chinese as a heritage language: The interplay of L2 grit, motivational intensity, and willingness to communicate. System, 1261, 103490. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Teimouri, Y., Plonsky, L., & Tabandeh, F. (2020). L2 grit: Passion and perseverance for second-language learning. Language Teaching Research, 26(5), 893–918. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wang, H., Peng, A., & Patterson, M. M. (2021). The roles of class social climate, language mindset, and emotions in predicting willingness to communicate in a foreign language. System, 991, 102529. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The Japanese EFL context. The Modern Language Journal, 86(1), 54–66. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Yashima, T., MacIntyre, P. D., & Ikeda, M. (2018). Situated willingness to communicate in an L2: Interplay of individual characteristics and context. Language Teaching Research, 22(1), 115–137. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Yu, X., & Ma, H. (2024). Modeling the predictive effect of enjoyment on willingness to communicate in a foreign language: The chain mediating role of growth mindset and grit. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1–18. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zarrinabadi, N., Rezazadeh, M., Karimi, M., & Lou, N. M. (2021a). Why do growth mindsets make you feel better about learning and your selves? The mediating role of adaptability. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 249–264. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zarrinabadi, N., Lou, N. M., & Shirzad, M. (2021b). Autonomy support predicts language mindsets: Implications for developing communicative competence and willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms. Learning and Individual Differences, 861, 101981. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zhang, J., Beckham, N., & Beckham, J. F. (2018). To talk or not to talk: A review of situational antecedents of willingness to communicate in the second language classroom. System, 721, 226–239. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zhang, L. J., Saeedian, A., & Fathi, J. (2022). Testing a model of growth mindset, ideal L2 self, boredom, and WTC in an EFL context. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 45(8), 3450–3465. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zhang, L., & Tsung, L. (2021). Learning Chinese as a second language in China: Positive emotions and enjoyment. System, 961, 102410. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zhao, Y., Niu, G., Hou, H., Zeng, G., Xu, L., Peng, K., & Yu, F. (2018). From growth mindset to grit in Chinese schools: The mediating roles of learning motivations. Frontiers in Psychology, 91, 2007. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zhao, X., Sun, P. P., & Gong, M. (2023). The merit of grit and emotions in L2 Chinese online language achievement: A case of Arabian students. International Journal of Multilingualism, 21(3), 1653–1679. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zhao, X., & Wang, D. (2023). Domain-specific L2 grit, anxiety, boredom, and enjoyment in online Chinese learning. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 33(4), 783–794. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue