Cover not available

Article published In: AILA Review
Vol. 38:1 (2025) ► pp.66–104

Get fulltext from our e-platform
JBE logo with link
PDF logo with download linkDownload PDF
EPUB logo with download linkDownload EPUB
authorization required

Investigating reactivity in L2 listener verbal reports

ORCiD logo with link | Jilin UniversityChangchun
 | National Chengchi UniversityTaipei
Published online: 18 August 2025
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/aila.24035.yel
Abstract
In investigating second language (L2) listening, verbal report (VR) can provide direct insight into listeners’ behaviors. However, a concern over this method is its potential for reactivity — that the VR may change (either positively or negatively) the individual’s cognitive processes involved in the task being investigated. Thus far, few studies have examined for reactivity in L2 listener VRs, and none have investigated it from a quantitative perspective, a gap which is addressed in this study. The study involved lower-intermediate to intermediate-level Mandarin-speaking English learners, and it compared the listening comprehension of an experimental group undertaking VRs with that of control groups assessed through recall protocols. No significant impact on comprehension was found for the VRs indicating, by extension, no interference with the listeners’ thought processes, and thus no apparent reactive effect. The study additionally examined for reactivity: (1) among three different VR styles (styles 1 and 2 were mediated styles, with each of these styles mediated in differing ways by researcher prompts, and style 3 was an unmediated VR); and (2) for mediated VRs, in general (the combination of styles 1 and 2). None of the analyses found a significant effect on comprehension. One further analysis, which lacked a control group, though, concluded there was a slight comprehension advantage for one of the mediated VR styles over the other two styles. The study had its limitations, but the findings suggest L2 listener VRs do not generally appear to be reactive, suggesting they are suitable for use by researchers investigating L2 listeners.
Article outline
  • Criticisms of VR and how these have been addressed
    • Major criticisms of VR
    • Ericsson and Simon’s (1984/1993) information-processing perspective on VR
    • Pressley and Afflerbach’s (1995) constructivist perspective on VR
  • Research on reactivity in L2 listener VRs
  • The current study
  • Method
    • Participants
    • The listening texts and relevant text/participant configurations
    • Data collection methods and procedures
      • The verbal reports
      • The recall protocols
        • The verbal recall protocols
        • The written recall protocols
    • Marking the learners’ VRs and recall protocols
    • Data analysis
  • Results
    • RQ 1: Do L2 listener VRs, in general, appear to generate a reactive effect?
    • RQ 2: Do mediated L2 listener VRs (i.e., styles 1 and 2, combined) appear to generate a reactive effect?
    • RQ 3: Do any of the three VR styles used in the study appear to generate a reactive effect?
  • Discussion
  • Notes
  • References
References (53)
References
Al-Maani, A., AlAbabneh, B., Mashaqba, B., & Huneety, A. (2024). Investigating second language learning strategies using think aloud protocols: Evidence from Jordanian EFL learners. Eurasian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 10(2), 12–22.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 21, 89–195. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bacon, S. M. (1992). Authentic listening in Spanish: How learners adjust their strategies to the difficulty of the input. Hispania, 75(2), 398–412. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bonk, W. J. (2000). Second language lexical knowledge and listening comprehension. International Journal of Listening, 14(11), 14–31. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bowles, M. A. (2010). The think-aloud controversy in second language research. Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2019). Verbal reports in instructed SLA research. In R. P. Leow (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of second language research in classroom learning (pp. 31–43). Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Brunfaut, T., & Harding, L. (2014). Linking the GEPT listening test to the Common European Framework of Reference. LTTC-GEPT Research Reports RG-05. LTTC, Taiwan.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Buck, G. (1990). The testing of second language listening comprehension. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Lancaster.
Bulut, B., & Ertem, I. S. (2018). A think-aloud study: Listening comprehension strategies used by primary school students. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 6(5), 135–143. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Carney, N. (2021). Diagnosing L2 listeners’ difficulty comprehending known lexis, TESOL Quarterly, 55(2), 536–567. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chien, C. N. (2001). How do the video tapes help with interpreting oral input? Chung Yuan Journal, 29(2), 159–173.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language. Longman.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2011). Strategies in learning and using a second language (2nd ed.). Longman Applied Linguistics/Pearson.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2023). System’s 50th anniversary special issue in conversation with Andrew D. Cohen. System, 1181, Article 103153. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1984). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. MIT Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1993). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. (Revised ed.). MIT Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Færch, C., & Kasper, G. (1987). From product to process — introspective methods in second language research. In C. Færch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Introspection in second language research (pp. 5–23). Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Foster, P., Tonkin, A., Wigglesworth, G. (2000). Measuring spoken language: A unit for all reasons. Applied Linguistics, 21(3), 345–375. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gass, S. (2015). Experimental research. In B. Paltridge & A. Phakiti (Eds.), Research methods in applied linguistics: A practical resource (pp. 101–118). Bloomsbury Academic.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Goh, C. C. M. (1998). How ESL learners with different listening abilities use comprehension strategies and tactics. Language Teaching Research, 2(2), 124–147. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2002). Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns. System, 30(2), 185–206. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2023). Learners’ cognitive processing problems during comprehension as a basis for L2 listening research. System, 1191, Article 103164. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Goh, C. C. M., & Vandergrift, L. (2022). Teaching and learning second language listening (2nd ed.). Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Graham, S. (1997). Effective language learning: Positive strategies for advanced level language learning. Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Graham, S., Santos, D., & Vanderplank, R. (2011). Exploring the relationship between listening development and strategy use. Language Teaching Research, 15(4), 435–456. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gu, P. Y., Hu, G., & Zhang, L. J. (2005). Investigating language learner strategies among lower primary school pupils in Singapore. Language Education, 19(4), 281–303. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2009). Listening strategies of Singaporean primary pupils. In R. E. Silver, C. C. M. Goh, & L. Alsagoff (Eds.), Language learning in new English contexts: Studies of acquisition and development (pp. 55–74). Continuum.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Harding, L. W. (2018). Listening to an unfamiliar accent: Exploring difficulty, strategy use, and evidence of adaptation on listening assessment tasks. In G. J. Ockey & E. Wagner (Eds.). Assessing L2 listening: Moving towards authenticity (pp. 98–112). John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jourdenais, R. (2001). Cognition, instruction and protocol analysis. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 354–375). Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Laviosa, F. (2000). The listening processes and strategies of learners of Italian: A case study. Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata, 32(2), 129–159.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84(3), 231–259. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Norris, J. M. (2015). Statistical significance testing in second language research: Basic problems and suggestions for reform. Language Learning, 651 (supplement 1), 97–126. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Peters, M. (1999). The listening comprehension strategies of students in a French immersion program. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Ottawa.
Plonsky, L. D. (2015). Statistical power, p values, descriptive statistics, and effect sizes: A “back-to-basics” approach to advancing quantitative methods in L2 research. In L. D. Plonsky (Ed.), Advancing quantitative methods in second language research (pp. 23–45). Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Plonsky, L. D. & Oswald, R. L. (2014). How big is “big”? Interpreting effect sizes in L2 research. Language Learning, 64(4), 878–912. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pressley, M., & Afflerbach, P. (1995). Verbal protocols of reading: The nature of constructively responsive reading. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Roever, C. & Pan, Y. C. (2008). Test Reviews. GEPT: General English Proficiency Test. Language Testing, 25(3), 403–418. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rost, M. (2001). Listening. In R. Carter & D. Nunan (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of other languages (pp. 7–13). Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sakai, H. (2011). Effect of repetition of exposure and proficiency level in L2 listening tests, TESOL Quarterly, 43(2), 360–372.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Seliger, H. W. (1983). The language learner as linguist: Of metaphors and realities. Applied Linguistics, 4(3), 179–191. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Smagorinsky, P. (2001). Rethinking protocol analysis from a cultural perspective. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 211, 233–245. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Smith, P., Kim, D., Vorobel, O., & King, J. R. (2020). Verbal reports in the reading processes of language learners: A methodological review. Review of Education, 8(1), 37–114. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Suh, B.-R. (2023). Are think-alouds reactive? Evidence from an L2 written corrective feedback study. Language Teaching Research, 27(5), 1099–1119. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Vandergrift, L. (1998). Successful and less successful listeners in French: What are the strategy differences? The French Review, 71(3), 370–395.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2003). Orchestrating strategy use: Toward a model of the skilled second language listener. Language Learning, 53(3), 463–496. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Vogely, A. (1995). Perceived strategy use during performance of three authentic listening comprehension tasks. The Modern Language Journal, 79(1), 41–56. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wagner, M. (2006). Utilizing the visual channel: An investigation of the use of video texts on tests of second language listening ability. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Teachers College, Columbia University.
Yeldham, M. (2009). Approaches to second language listening instruction: Investigating the ‘top-down/bottom-up’ debate. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Melbourne.
Yeldham, M., & Chen, R. T.-H. (2014). Conducting verbal reports to study Chinese-speaking English learners’ listening: The use of prompts. The European Journal of Applied Linguistics and TEFL, 3(1), 55–74.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2016). Investigating mediation styles of second language listener verbal reports. Applied Linguistics Review, 7(2), 203–233. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Yeldham, M., & Gruba, P. (2014). Toward an instructional approach to developing interactive second language listening. Language Teaching Research, 18(1), 33–53. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2016). The development of individual learners in an L2 listening strategies course. Language Teaching Research, 20(1), 9–34. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cited by (1)

Cited by one other publication

Yeldham, Michael & Rainbow Tsai-Hung Chen
2025. Are L2 listener verbal reports reactive? Insights from the learners. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 26 november 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.

Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue